VIII. Those Who Have Come to a Principality Through Crimes
But because there are two further ways of rising from private citizen to prince, which cannot be attributed entirely either to fortune or to ability, I do not think they should be left aside, although one of them could be discussed more fully in a treatment of republics. These are when one rises to a principality by some wicked and criminal path, or when a private citizen becomes prince of his own country by the favor of his fellow citizens. In speaking of the first way, I will show it with two examples, one ancient and one modern, without going any further into the merits of this subject, because I judge that these are enough for anyone who might be obliged to imitate them.
Agathocles the Sicilian,1 born not only to private station but to the lowest and most abject, became king of Syracuse. The son of a potter, he led a wicked life at every stage of his career; nevertheless he accompanied his crimes with such ability of mind and body that, having turned to soldiering, he rose through its ranks to become praetor of Syracuse. Once established in that rank, he decided to become prince and to hold by violence, and without obligation to anyone, what had been granted him by consent. He came to an understanding about this plan with Hamilcar the Carthaginian, who was campaigning with his armies in Sicily, and one morning he assembled the people and the senate of Syracuse as if he had matters of the republic to put before them. At a prearranged signal he had his soldiers kill all the senators and the richest of the people. With these men dead, he seized and held the principality of that city without any civil strife. And although he was twice defeated by the Carthaginians and finally besieged, he was not only able to defend his city, but, leaving part of his men to defend it against the siege, he attacked Africa with the rest, and in a short time freed Syracuse from the siege and brought Carthage to the direst straits. The Carthaginians were forced to come to terms with him, to content themselves with the possession of Africa, and to leave Sicily to Agathocles. Whoever considers the actions and ability of this man, then, will see nothing, or very little, that he can attribute to fortune; since, as was said above, it was not through anyone’s favor but by rising through the ranks of the army, which he had won with a thousand hardships and dangers, that he came to the principality, and he afterward kept it by so many bold and dangerous measures. Yet one cannot call it ability (virtù) to kill one’s fellow citizens, to betray one’s friends, to be without faith, without mercy, without religion. By these methods one can acquire power, but not glory. For if one considers the ability of Agathocles in entering into and escaping from dangers, and the greatness of his spirit in enduring and overcoming adversity, one cannot see why he should be judged inferior to any of the most excellent captains. Nevertheless, his savage cruelty and inhumanity, along with his countless crimes, do not allow him to be celebrated among the most excellent men. One cannot, therefore, attribute to fortune or to ability what he achieved without either.
In our own times, during the reign of Alexander VI, Oliverotto of Fermo, who had been left fatherless as a small child some years before, was brought up by his maternal uncle, Giovanni Fogliani, and in the first years of his youth was sent to soldier under Paolo Vitelli, so that, steeped in that discipline, he might reach some excellent rank in the army. When Paolo died, he soldiered under his brother Vitellozzo,2 and in a very short time, being clever and vigorous in body and spirit, he became the first man of his company. But since it seemed servile to him to be under others, he planned to seize Fermo with the help of some citizens of Fermo who valued servitude more than the liberty of their country, and with the support of the Vitelli. He wrote to Giovanni Fogliani that, having been away from home for many years, he wanted to come and see him and his city, and to see something of his inheritance; and because he had labored for nothing but honor, he wanted to come in honorable style, accompanied by a hundred horsemen from among his friends and servants, so that his fellow citizens would see that he had not spent his time in vain. He begged his uncle to arrange for the people of Fermo to receive him honorably, which would do honor not only to Oliverotto but to Giovanni himself, since Oliverotto was his ward. Giovanni, therefore, did not fail in any duty toward his nephew. He had him received honorably by the people of Fermo, and Oliverotto lodged in his uncle’s house. There, after a few days spent arranging what was needed for his coming crime, he gave a very formal banquet, to which he invited Giovanni Fogliani and all the leading men of Fermo. When the food and all the other entertainments usual at such banquets were finished, Oliverotto artfully began certain grave discussions, speaking of the greatness of Pope Alexander and of Cesare his son, and of their enterprises. Giovanni and the others answered him, and then he suddenly rose, saying that these were things to be spoken of in a more private place; and he withdrew into a room, where Giovanni and all the other citizens followed him. No sooner were they seated than soldiers came out of hiding places in the room and killed Giovanni and all the others. After this murder Oliverotto mounted his horse, rode through the town, and besieged the chief magistrates in the palace, so that out of fear they were forced to obey him and set up a government of which he made himself prince. And having killed all those who, being discontented, could harm him, he strengthened himself with new civil and military institutions, so that in the space of the one year he held the principality, he was not only secure in the city of Fermo but had become fearsome to all his neighbors. And it would have been as hard to dislodge him as Agathocles, had he not let himself be deceived by Cesare Borgia when, as was said above, Cesare took the Orsini and the Vitelli at Senigallia. There Oliverotto too was taken, one year after the parricide he had committed, and he was strangled together with Vitellozzo, who had been his teacher in ability and in crime.
Someone might wonder how it came about that Agathocles, and others like him, after endless betrayals and cruelties, could live long and securely in his own country and defend himself against outside enemies, and that his citizens never conspired against him; whereas many others, by means of cruelty, have been unable to keep their states even in peaceful times, not to mention the uncertain times of war. I believe that this comes from cruelties being badly used or well used. Well used are those (if one may speak well of evil) that are done all at once, out of the necessity of securing oneself, and then are not persisted in but are turned to as much benefit for the subjects as possible. Badly used are those which, though few at the beginning, grow with time rather than die out. Those who follow the first way can, with God and with men, find some remedy for their state, as Agathocles did; the others cannot possibly survive. Hence it should be noted that in seizing a state, the one who takes it must reckon up all the injuries he needs to do, and do them all at once, so as not to have to repeat them every day, and so as to be able, by not renewing them, to reassure men and win them over with benefits. Whoever does otherwise, out of timidity or bad advice, is always obliged to keep the knife in his hand; nor can he ever rely on his subjects, since they, because of fresh and continual injuries, can never feel secure with him. For injuries must be done all together, so that, being tasted less, they offend less; and benefits must be given little by little, so that they may be tasted better. And above all a prince must live with his subjects in such a way that no accident, good or bad, makes him change course; because when necessities come in adverse times, you are too late for harsh measures, and the good you do does not help you, because it is judged to be forced, and you get no thanks for it.
Notes
1. Agathocles (361–289 BC), tyrant and later king of Syracuse. Machiavelli follows the account in Justin’s Epitome.
2. Paolo Vitelli, a Florentine condottiere, was executed by the Florentines in 1499 for alleged treachery in the war against Pisa. His brother Vitellozzo was one of Cesare Borgia’s captains.